Critical Theory Approach
The Polarities of Democracy model is based on a critical theory perspective of pursuing positive social change by overcoming the forces of institutional oppression and violence (environmental, economic, and militaristic) that threaten the survival of the human species. The model conforms to Bohman’s description of critical theory: “a theory is critical to the extent that it seeks human emancipation….decreasing domination and increasing freedom” (2012, para. 1). The model provides a unifying definition of democracy for five broad and deep categories of the literature: (1) the vast body of general literature related to democratic theories and concepts; (2) workplace democracy literature specifically related to occupational stress; (3) workplace democracy literature specifically related to participation; (4) organization development literature that, while not using the term workplace democracy, focuses on worker control and empowerment; and (5) workplace democracy literature specifically related to concepts of economics and ownership.
Polarities of Democracy Publications & Papers
Benet, W. J. (2006). The polarity management model of workplace democracy (Doctoral dissertation, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto, Canada). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global Full Text database, UMI Publishing. (Order No. NR15724)
Benet, W. J. (2007). The polarity management model of workplace democracy: Managing the dilemmas of empowerment. Poster presentation at WorkLife 2007, National Symposium of The Centers for Disease Control and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, September 12, 2007, Bethesda, MD. Benet, W. J. (2012a). Managing the polarities of democracy: A social economy framework for healthy, sustainable, and just communities. Paper presented at the 14th World Congress of the Association for Social Economics, June, 22, 2012, University of Glasgow, Scotland.
Benet, W. J. (2012b). The polarities of democracy: A theoretical framework for building a healthy, sustainable, and just world. Unpublished Manuscript. Social Economy Centre, Adult Education and Community Development Program of the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto, Canada.
Benet, W. J. (2013a). The case for public education: A question of survival. Paper presented at the Fourth Annual Conference in Political Economy, International Initiative of Promotion of Political Economy (IIPPE), July 10, 2013, the Institute for Social Studies, Erasmus University, The Hague, the Netherlands.
Benet, W. J. (2013b). Managing the polarities of democracy: A theoretical framework for positive social change. Journal of Social Change 5(1), 26-39. doi:10.5590/JOSC.2013.05.1.03
Benet, W. J. (2013c). A social economy path to healthy, sustainable & just communities. Paper presented at the Inaugural European Conference on the Social Sciences, July, 7, 2013, Brighton, England.
Benet, W. J. (2014a). The polarities of democracy and the Rochester-Toronto Community/University Partnership Project. Paper presented at the Association for Nonprofit and Social Economy Research, 2014 Canadian Congress of the Humanities and Social Sciences, May 29, 2014, Brock University, St. Catherine’s, Canada.
Benet, W. J. (2014b). The polarities of democracy: Research and community initiatives currently using Johnson’s polarity management concepts as their conceptual framework. Paper presented at the Polarity Thinking Learning Community, April 12, 2014, Toronto, Canada.
Benet, W.J. (2015, March). Social entrepreneurship and the polarities of democracy. Presentation as part of the panel: The intersection of social entrepreneurship and social justice: an international perspective at the Annual Conference of the American Society for Public Administration, Chicago, IL, March 6, 2015.
Benet, W.J. (2015, November). Social enterprise/entrepreneurship and the polarities of democracy: The intersection between the social economy and just communities. Presentation as part of the panel: The skeptic’s guide to social enterprise and entrepreneurship at The Association for Research on Nonprofit Organizations and Voluntary Action 2015 Conference, Chicago, IL, November 19-21, 2015.
Muzorewa, W., Tobor, J., Benet, W.J., & Bidjerano, M. (2015, June). The polarities of democracy and economic justice in Nigeria and Zimbabwe. Panel Presentation at the 15th World Congress of the Association for Social Economics, Brock University, Canada.
Strouble, B. W., Jr. (2015). Racism vs. social capital: A case study of two majority black communities (Doctoral dissertation, Walden University, Minneapolis, Minnesota). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global Full Text database, UMI Publishing. (Order No. 3717562)
Tobor, J. O. (2014). Urhobo culture and the amnesty program in Niger Delta, Nigeria: An ethnographic case study (Doctoral dissertation, Walden University, Minneapolis, Minnesota). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global Full Text database, UMI Publishing. (Order No. 3645926)
Benet, W. J. (2007). The polarity management model of workplace democracy: Managing the dilemmas of empowerment. Poster presentation at WorkLife 2007, National Symposium of The Centers for Disease Control and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, September 12, 2007, Bethesda, MD. Benet, W. J. (2012a). Managing the polarities of democracy: A social economy framework for healthy, sustainable, and just communities. Paper presented at the 14th World Congress of the Association for Social Economics, June, 22, 2012, University of Glasgow, Scotland.
Benet, W. J. (2012b). The polarities of democracy: A theoretical framework for building a healthy, sustainable, and just world. Unpublished Manuscript. Social Economy Centre, Adult Education and Community Development Program of the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education of the University of Toronto, Canada.
Benet, W. J. (2013a). The case for public education: A question of survival. Paper presented at the Fourth Annual Conference in Political Economy, International Initiative of Promotion of Political Economy (IIPPE), July 10, 2013, the Institute for Social Studies, Erasmus University, The Hague, the Netherlands.
Benet, W. J. (2013b). Managing the polarities of democracy: A theoretical framework for positive social change. Journal of Social Change 5(1), 26-39. doi:10.5590/JOSC.2013.05.1.03
Benet, W. J. (2013c). A social economy path to healthy, sustainable & just communities. Paper presented at the Inaugural European Conference on the Social Sciences, July, 7, 2013, Brighton, England.
Benet, W. J. (2014a). The polarities of democracy and the Rochester-Toronto Community/University Partnership Project. Paper presented at the Association for Nonprofit and Social Economy Research, 2014 Canadian Congress of the Humanities and Social Sciences, May 29, 2014, Brock University, St. Catherine’s, Canada.
Benet, W. J. (2014b). The polarities of democracy: Research and community initiatives currently using Johnson’s polarity management concepts as their conceptual framework. Paper presented at the Polarity Thinking Learning Community, April 12, 2014, Toronto, Canada.
Benet, W.J. (2015, March). Social entrepreneurship and the polarities of democracy. Presentation as part of the panel: The intersection of social entrepreneurship and social justice: an international perspective at the Annual Conference of the American Society for Public Administration, Chicago, IL, March 6, 2015.
Benet, W.J. (2015, November). Social enterprise/entrepreneurship and the polarities of democracy: The intersection between the social economy and just communities. Presentation as part of the panel: The skeptic’s guide to social enterprise and entrepreneurship at The Association for Research on Nonprofit Organizations and Voluntary Action 2015 Conference, Chicago, IL, November 19-21, 2015.
Muzorewa, W., Tobor, J., Benet, W.J., & Bidjerano, M. (2015, June). The polarities of democracy and economic justice in Nigeria and Zimbabwe. Panel Presentation at the 15th World Congress of the Association for Social Economics, Brock University, Canada.
Strouble, B. W., Jr. (2015). Racism vs. social capital: A case study of two majority black communities (Doctoral dissertation, Walden University, Minneapolis, Minnesota). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global Full Text database, UMI Publishing. (Order No. 3717562)
Tobor, J. O. (2014). Urhobo culture and the amnesty program in Niger Delta, Nigeria: An ethnographic case study (Doctoral dissertation, Walden University, Minneapolis, Minnesota). Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global Full Text database, UMI Publishing. (Order No. 3645926)
The Conceptual Framework for the Polarities of Democracy Model
Johnson, B. (1996). Polarity management. Amherst, MA: HRD Press.
Exemplary Models underlying the Polarities of Democracy Model
Bernstein, P. (1976). Workplace democratization - its internal dynamics. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press.
Blake, R. R., & Mouton, J. S. (1985). The Managerial Grid III. Houston, TX: Gulf publishing Company.
Butts, R. F. (1980). The revival of civic learning. Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.
Ellerman, D. P. (1990). The democratic worker owned firm: A new model for the East and West. London, England: Unwin Hyman, Ltd.
Karasek, R. & Theorell, T. (1990). Healthy work: Stress, productivity, and the reconstruction of working life. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Blake, R. R., & Mouton, J. S. (1985). The Managerial Grid III. Houston, TX: Gulf publishing Company.
Butts, R. F. (1980). The revival of civic learning. Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.
Ellerman, D. P. (1990). The democratic worker owned firm: A new model for the East and West. London, England: Unwin Hyman, Ltd.
Karasek, R. & Theorell, T. (1990). Healthy work: Stress, productivity, and the reconstruction of working life. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Additional Key References underlying the Polarities of Democracy Model
Barber, B. R. (1984/2003). Strong democracy: Participatory politics for a new age. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Bohman, J. (2012). Critical theory. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2012 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). Retrieved from http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2012/entries/critical-theory/
Chang, H. (2011). 23 things they don’t tell you about capitalism. London, England: Penguin.
Conca, J. (2012, October 1). The Arab Spring: Energy and the road to democracy? Forbes. Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/jamesconca/2012/10/01/the-arab-spring-energy-and-the-road-to-democracy/
CUPP. (2010). Vision, mission, and principles statement of May 23, 2010. The Rochester-Toronto Community/University Partnership Project (CUPP), Rochester, NY.
Dewey, J. (1927/1991). The public and its problems. Athens, OH: Swallow Press, Ohio University Press.
Dewey, J. (1938/1997). Experience and education. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
Diop, C. A. (1955/1974). The African origin of civilization: Myth or reality (translated from the French by Mercer Cook). Chicago, IL: Lawrence Hill Books.
Eisler, R. (1987). The chalice and the blade. San Francisco, CA: Harper & Row, Publishers.
Freire, P. (1970/1997). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York, NY: The Continuum Publishing Company.
Fromm, E. (1941/1965). Escape from freedom. New York, NY: Avon Books.
Gardell, B. (1991). Worker participation and autonomy: A multi-level approach to democracy at the workplace. In J. V. Johnson, & G. Johansson (Eds.), The psychosocial work environment: Work organization, democratization and health, (pp. 21–31). Amityville, NY: Baywood Publishing Company, Inc.
Gore, A. (2006). An inconvenient truth: The planetary emergency of global warming and what we can do about it. New York, NY: Rodale Press.
Greider, W. (2011, November 22). The democratic promise of Occupy Wall Street. The Nation. Retrieved from http://www.thenation.com/article/164767/democratic-promise-occupy-wall-street#
Grinde, D. A., & Johansen, B. E. (1991). Exemplar of liberty: Native America and the evolution of democracy. Los Angeles, CA: American Indian Studies Center, University of California.
Hall, B. (1975) Participatory research: An approach for change. Convergence, 8(2), 24–31.
Hartmann, T. (2002). Unequal protection: The rise of corporate dominance and the theft of human rights. New York, NY: Rodale, Inc.
Hurst, J. (2005). On popular education. Accessed on February 26, 2010 from http://www.nl.edu/academics/cas/ace/resources/johnhurst.cfm
International Council for Adult Education (ICAE). (2001). The Ocho Rios declaration. Adult learning: A key to democratic citizenship and global action. Retrieved October 12, 2012 from http://www.icae.org.uy/eng/ordeceng.html
Jun, J. S. (2006). The social construction of public administration: Interpretive and critical perspectives. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Kelly, M. (2001). The divine right of capital: Dethroning the corporate aristocracy. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
King, M. L., Jr. (1991). Testament of hope: The essential writings and speeches of Martin Luther King Jr. (Edited by James M. Washington). New York, NY: Harper Collins.
King, M. L., Jr. (2015). The radical King. (Edited and introduced by Cornell West). Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
Klein, N. (2007). The shock doctrine: The rise of disaster capitalism. New York, NY: Henry Holt and Company, Inc.
Laiken, M. (2003, Spring). Models of organizational learning: Paradoxes and best practices in the post industrial workplace. Organization Development Journal, 21(1), 8-19.
Lerner, M. (2006). The left hand of God: Taking back our country from the religious right. San Francisco, CA: HarperSanFrancisco.
Loewen, J. W. (1995). Lies my teacher told me: Everything your American history textbook got wrong. New York, NY: The New Press.
Maddow R. (2012). Drift: The unmooring of American military power. New York, NY: Crown Publishing
Maharawal, M. M. (October 31, 2011). Occupy Wall Street is transforming its participants, our country, and democracy. Retrieved from http://www.alternet.org/story/152910/occupy_wall_street_is_transforming_its_participants%2C_our_country%2C_and_democracy
Marable, M. (2002). The great wells of democracy: The meaning of race in American life. New York, NY: Basic Civitas Books.
O’Manique, J. (2003). The origins of justice: The evolution of morality, human rights, and law. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Pateman, C. (1970). Participation and democratic theory. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
Quarter, J. (1992). Canada’s social economy: Co-operatives, non-profits and other community enterprises. Toronto, Canada: James Lorimer & Company, Publishers.
Quarter, J. (1995). Crossing the line: Unionized employee ownership and investment funds. Toronto, Canada: James Lorimer & Company, Publishers.
Ransom, D., & Baird, V. (Eds.). (2010). People first economics. Oxford, England: New Internationalist Publications.
Rawls, J. (1971/1999). A theory of justice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Sanders, B. (2012). A petition to support the saving American democracy amendment. Retrieved from http://www.sanders.senate.gov/petition/?uid=f1c2660f-54b9-4193-86a4-ec2c39342c6c
Saul, J. R. (1995). The unconscious civilization. Concord, Canada: House of Anansi Press Limited.
Schugurensky, D. (2004). History of education: Selected moments of the 20th century. Retrieved February 26, 2011 from http://www.oise.utoronto.ca/legacy/research/edu20/moments/1975hall.html?cms_page=edu20/moments/1975hall.html
Schumpeter, J. A. (1943). Capitalism, socialism and democracy. London, England: Allen & Unwin.
Schwartz, B. (1977/2002). The great rights of mankind: A history of the American Bill of Rights. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Shapiro, I. (1999). Democratic justice. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Somit, A., & Peterson, S. A. (1997) Darwinism, dominance, and democracy: The biological bases of authoritarianism. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (1948). Adopted by The United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/rights/50/decla.htm
Wainwright, H. (2012, August 29). Greece: Syriza shines a light. Retrieved from http://www.opendemocracy.net/hilary-wainwright/greece-syriza-shines-light
Waring, M. (1988). If women counted: A new feminist economics. San Francisco, CA: Harper & Row.
West, C. (2004). Democracy matters. Winning the fight against imperialism. New York, NY: The Penguin.
Young, I. M. (2002). Inclusion and democracy. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Bohman, J. (2012). Critical theory. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2012 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). Retrieved from http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2012/entries/critical-theory/
Chang, H. (2011). 23 things they don’t tell you about capitalism. London, England: Penguin.
Conca, J. (2012, October 1). The Arab Spring: Energy and the road to democracy? Forbes. Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/jamesconca/2012/10/01/the-arab-spring-energy-and-the-road-to-democracy/
CUPP. (2010). Vision, mission, and principles statement of May 23, 2010. The Rochester-Toronto Community/University Partnership Project (CUPP), Rochester, NY.
Dewey, J. (1927/1991). The public and its problems. Athens, OH: Swallow Press, Ohio University Press.
Dewey, J. (1938/1997). Experience and education. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
Diop, C. A. (1955/1974). The African origin of civilization: Myth or reality (translated from the French by Mercer Cook). Chicago, IL: Lawrence Hill Books.
Eisler, R. (1987). The chalice and the blade. San Francisco, CA: Harper & Row, Publishers.
Freire, P. (1970/1997). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York, NY: The Continuum Publishing Company.
Fromm, E. (1941/1965). Escape from freedom. New York, NY: Avon Books.
Gardell, B. (1991). Worker participation and autonomy: A multi-level approach to democracy at the workplace. In J. V. Johnson, & G. Johansson (Eds.), The psychosocial work environment: Work organization, democratization and health, (pp. 21–31). Amityville, NY: Baywood Publishing Company, Inc.
Gore, A. (2006). An inconvenient truth: The planetary emergency of global warming and what we can do about it. New York, NY: Rodale Press.
Greider, W. (2011, November 22). The democratic promise of Occupy Wall Street. The Nation. Retrieved from http://www.thenation.com/article/164767/democratic-promise-occupy-wall-street#
Grinde, D. A., & Johansen, B. E. (1991). Exemplar of liberty: Native America and the evolution of democracy. Los Angeles, CA: American Indian Studies Center, University of California.
Hall, B. (1975) Participatory research: An approach for change. Convergence, 8(2), 24–31.
Hartmann, T. (2002). Unequal protection: The rise of corporate dominance and the theft of human rights. New York, NY: Rodale, Inc.
Hurst, J. (2005). On popular education. Accessed on February 26, 2010 from http://www.nl.edu/academics/cas/ace/resources/johnhurst.cfm
International Council for Adult Education (ICAE). (2001). The Ocho Rios declaration. Adult learning: A key to democratic citizenship and global action. Retrieved October 12, 2012 from http://www.icae.org.uy/eng/ordeceng.html
Jun, J. S. (2006). The social construction of public administration: Interpretive and critical perspectives. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Kelly, M. (2001). The divine right of capital: Dethroning the corporate aristocracy. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
King, M. L., Jr. (1991). Testament of hope: The essential writings and speeches of Martin Luther King Jr. (Edited by James M. Washington). New York, NY: Harper Collins.
King, M. L., Jr. (2015). The radical King. (Edited and introduced by Cornell West). Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
Klein, N. (2007). The shock doctrine: The rise of disaster capitalism. New York, NY: Henry Holt and Company, Inc.
Laiken, M. (2003, Spring). Models of organizational learning: Paradoxes and best practices in the post industrial workplace. Organization Development Journal, 21(1), 8-19.
Lerner, M. (2006). The left hand of God: Taking back our country from the religious right. San Francisco, CA: HarperSanFrancisco.
Loewen, J. W. (1995). Lies my teacher told me: Everything your American history textbook got wrong. New York, NY: The New Press.
Maddow R. (2012). Drift: The unmooring of American military power. New York, NY: Crown Publishing
Maharawal, M. M. (October 31, 2011). Occupy Wall Street is transforming its participants, our country, and democracy. Retrieved from http://www.alternet.org/story/152910/occupy_wall_street_is_transforming_its_participants%2C_our_country%2C_and_democracy
Marable, M. (2002). The great wells of democracy: The meaning of race in American life. New York, NY: Basic Civitas Books.
O’Manique, J. (2003). The origins of justice: The evolution of morality, human rights, and law. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Pateman, C. (1970). Participation and democratic theory. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
Quarter, J. (1992). Canada’s social economy: Co-operatives, non-profits and other community enterprises. Toronto, Canada: James Lorimer & Company, Publishers.
Quarter, J. (1995). Crossing the line: Unionized employee ownership and investment funds. Toronto, Canada: James Lorimer & Company, Publishers.
Ransom, D., & Baird, V. (Eds.). (2010). People first economics. Oxford, England: New Internationalist Publications.
Rawls, J. (1971/1999). A theory of justice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Sanders, B. (2012). A petition to support the saving American democracy amendment. Retrieved from http://www.sanders.senate.gov/petition/?uid=f1c2660f-54b9-4193-86a4-ec2c39342c6c
Saul, J. R. (1995). The unconscious civilization. Concord, Canada: House of Anansi Press Limited.
Schugurensky, D. (2004). History of education: Selected moments of the 20th century. Retrieved February 26, 2011 from http://www.oise.utoronto.ca/legacy/research/edu20/moments/1975hall.html?cms_page=edu20/moments/1975hall.html
Schumpeter, J. A. (1943). Capitalism, socialism and democracy. London, England: Allen & Unwin.
Schwartz, B. (1977/2002). The great rights of mankind: A history of the American Bill of Rights. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Shapiro, I. (1999). Democratic justice. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Somit, A., & Peterson, S. A. (1997) Darwinism, dominance, and democracy: The biological bases of authoritarianism. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights. (1948). Adopted by The United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/rights/50/decla.htm
Wainwright, H. (2012, August 29). Greece: Syriza shines a light. Retrieved from http://www.opendemocracy.net/hilary-wainwright/greece-syriza-shines-light
Waring, M. (1988). If women counted: A new feminist economics. San Francisco, CA: Harper & Row.
West, C. (2004). Democracy matters. Winning the fight against imperialism. New York, NY: The Penguin.
Young, I. M. (2002). Inclusion and democracy. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.